Illustration 1: Alma Lopez is an artist, activist and visual storyteller working in painting, photo based digital prints, and video. She is internationally recognized for her innovative digital images, which recontextualize cultural icons bringing issues of race, gender and sexuality into relationship with transnationalist myths.
Introduction to Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Sexuality in the Curriculum
Where did gender identities and gender roles originate? What is biological sex? Many people are born with genitalia and sexual organs, which are in direct correlation to their genetic make-up. Males are considered to have XY chromosomes and females are considered to have XX chromosomes. However, intersex abnormalities occur when individuals are born with both male and female genitalia or have multiple chromosomal outcomes that can make them appear to have more male or female features that do not align with their identified gender. The Intersex Society of America reports that there is a stigma that is associated with being intersex. Additionally, trauma stimulated by unwanted genital surgeries as infants perpetuates confusion (Slattery, 2006).
Slattery (2006) identifies disgust as one of the reasons that issues of prejudice and violence continue in our society today. This disgust may result from taste preferences, repressed desires, and cultural taboos, that create a sense of entitlement, where individuals feel justified in wrongly treating those people who are different from themselves. Individuals justify their prejudices' and violence toward those who are "different" with irrational thoughts that are perpetuated by psychological implants through acculturation and association. Slattery states, "a consuming hatred prevents us from moving forward to address urgent ecological, economic, health, energy, and water issues" (2006, p. 143). Disgust must be dealt with through reflection and self-evaluation. It should never be a part of the reason for making decisions on laws or policies. Awareness is necessary. Yet, media and advertising does no justice on portraying violence and sexuality as normal. Parent further united with Project Unmask http://www.parentfurther.com/mediacompressed the idea of media and how it drags young adolescents into their media ideas.
It could be said that prejudices and hatred stem from ignorance. In the case of sex-related issues it is important to understand that sexual orientation does not define a person's sexual behavior. Sexual behavior is not necessarily related to sexual orientation, gender identity, or cultural norms. Additionally, the psychology of gender may not even match the biology of the anatomy or genetic makeup (Slattery, 2006). This topic is directly related to social justice and current events. Bullying is prevalent in schools right now and there are advocates who believe that the suicide rate can be tied to the effects of bullying. Teenagers are getting bullied, feeling tormented, experiencing helplessness at school as well as on the Internet. In some cases, teenagers feel threatened in their own homes.
- An anti-bullying public service announcement by the NOH8 campaign.
Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Sexuality in the Curriculum
Multicultural discourse and practice are well established in the field of education (Asher, 2007). Gender, race and sexuality continue to be a conflict in the classroom, curriculum, and in the community. Although multicultural education discourse is well established, stereotypical representations and repressive silences persist in the sphere of practice. One may argue that multicultural education has generally focused on race and culture, paying limited attention to differences of sexuality, gender and class (Asher, 2007). The evidence is abundantly clear that the human community is amazingly diverse and our multicultural diversity is one of our greatest strengths to be celebrated and not a liability to be eradicated. Therefore, "everything we teach is incomplete if we do not constantly foreground issues of prejudice and violence in our schools and society" (Slattery, 2006, p. 144). Slattery states, "the twentieth century is filled with other tragedies..." (p. 143). There is a consumption of this hate and our society is not able to move forward until each issue is eliminated with its prejudice. "Our survival as a species depends upon uniting in our common humanity" (Slattery, 2006, p. 143). Our society has become multicultural; there is not a single mold into which everyone fits. Individuals are unique and diverse in their own way. "Understanding our common humanity demands respect and appreciation for the diversity that enriches us all" (Slattery, 2006, p.144).
Integrating our community and education with social justice can be difficult. Movements occur and many great leaders have helped pave the way for the opportunities we have today. Slattery (2006) embraces leaders such as Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela, Desmond Tutu, Oscar Romero, and Ghandi. These famous people have helped society and education to embrace such movements to overcome "issues of prejudice and violence in our schools and society" (Slattery, 2006, p. 144). Slattery feels this chapter is necessary because "curriculum development in the postmodern era must aggressively and consistently include lessons and experiences that will ameliorate the divisions and hatred we face in the world today" (2006, p. 144). Although, one could argue that the continuation of a myth, such as portraying Rosa Parks as a simple seamstress with tired feet instead of an active member of the Civil Rights Movement practicing civil disobedience marginalizes the female efforts of the movement.
When people demonstrate ignorance it is usually associated with fear and lack of information. Slattery (2006) states that "arrogance and ignorance about race, gender, sexuality and ethnicity is the root cause of senseless suffering: bullying in schools, segregation in society, workplace discrimination, salary inequities, identity confusion and repression, hate crimes and much more" (p. 145). He reminds us that, "we must educate ourselves and our students about these issues," (Slattery, 2006, p. 146) because if we do not then prejudices and violence will continue. Education and social justice in the postmodern era must explore curriculum development as "a commitment to a robust investigation of cultural, ethnic, gender, and identity issues" (Slattery, 2006, p. 146). Our society needs to understand the harm it is causing, therefore, "we must explore conscious and unconscious emotions such as fear, visceral loathing, and disgust" (Slattery, 2006, p. 146).
According to Thornton (2009), heteronormativity is the belief that the typical human is heterosexual. "Heteronormativity paints an inaccurate picture of social life and perpetuates intolerance, sometimes with tangibly destructive consequences such as harassment and physical violence" (Thornton, 2009, p. 362). Curriculum needs to be created in order to provide students with multiple perspectives and experiences. The exclusion of homosexuals from curriculum encourages students to continue to believe that the typical American is heterosexual. Homosexuality is specifically left out of the social studies curriculum. For example, in a popular high school U.S. History textbook, James Baldwin is a novelist portrayed as an African American who wrote about discrimination. The textbook fails to mention that Baldwin was homosexual and also wrote about the discrimination he faced because of his sexual orientation (Thornton, 2009, pg. 363).
Slattery (2006) identifies five issues of sexuality and gender: biological sex, gender identity, gender roles, sexual behavior, and sexual orientation.
Biological Sex
Children born with sex organs such as penile genitalia or vaginal genitalia will result as a male or a female. However, children born with both genitalia are labeled as intersexual. Unfortunately, it is those intersex individuals who suffer from ridicule and humiliation. Organizations, such as the Intersex Society of North America (http://www.isna.org), as well as many individuals are "devoted to systemic change to end the shame, secrecy, and unwanted genital surgeries for people born with anatomy that someone decided is not standard for male or female" (Slattery, 2006, p. 148). For example, the television drama series Grey's Anatomy had an episode that demonstrated this uncertainty. A pubescent girl was diagnosed with an unusual mass on one of her ovaries. When her doctor discovers it is not a mass, but instead it is a testicle, the intern feels compelled to inform his patient. The patient's parents were against her knowing the truth, whereas her intern thought she had the right to know. As a result, when the adolescent found out it was a testicle, she felt relieved because she knew something did not feel right. The confusion about her sexuality was no longer an issue because she found out she was an intersex individual. "Medical professionals and healthcare providers are gradually becoming more aware of the need to carefully examine issues related to intersexuality and in many cases to refrain from performing surgery on infants" (Slattery, 2006, p. 148). As children grow, it is natural for them to explore and wonder about their body. It is part of nature and biology. Slattery believes students, "must become familiar with intersexuality because they will certainly have intersex children in their schools and in their family who deserve love and understanding just like any other child" (2006, p. 148).
"All people identify psychologically and emotionally as either man, woman, transgender or androgynous and this identity is not contingent upon biology" (Slattery, 2006, pp. 148-149). "Gender identity is very complex and fluid" (Slattery, 2006, p. 149). The movie Transmerica does an excellent job explaining the experiences of transgendered individuals. Although this film is one small example of what transgendered individuals experience, the story captures the essence and emotion they endure during their lifetime. There has to be an understanding that not all individuals are born with specific gender based on biology. Gender should no longer be considered a binary occurrence because there are many individuals that exist in society who do not cleanly fit into a traditional male or female gender classifications. Gender identity has expanded to include other roles that better describe the position of those who fall outside of the historical binary.
According to Slattery (2006), there are three gender identity roles. The most common gender identity occurs when both the biological and psychological characteristics match. Deborah Youdell (2005) discusses the importance of rejecting the silent acceptance that sexual orientation is a biological, psychological, or psychic pre-given that is synonymous with sexuality and exists in a causal, linear, relationship with sexual identity because it calls into question the plausibility of severing the connection between gender and sexuality. This circumstance accounts for the traditional male/female view of gender. Transgender identity is where the biological and psychological characteristics do not match. For example, a person born with male genitalia, XY chromosomes, and high levels of testosterone, may not consider himself as male (Slattery, 2006, p 149). "Most transgender persons will assume a name and dress to match their identity" (Slattery, 2006, p. 149). Some will choose to have surgery to align their physical and psychological selves and refer to himself or herself as "transsexual" (Slattery, 2006, p. 149). The third gender identity is androgynous, which represents people who neither identify nor dress themselves as male or female (Slattery, 2006, p. 149).
Transsexuality, also called "Gender Dysphoria" is the conflict between gender identity and physical sex and is almost always evident to the individual at an early age. Some transsexuals report knowing of the disconnect between their physical gender and their psychological gender as early as preschool (Slattery, 2006, p.149). Transsexuality is independent of sex. In fact, most transsexuals are also heterosexuals, becoming romantically involved with the opposite sex of which they psychologically associate. The discrepancy between the body and mind of a transsexual can cause an enormous amount of suffering throughout the life of the individual. Research indicates that "some fifty percent of transsexuals die by age 30, usually by their own hand... Social oppression, culturally indoctrinated shame, self-loathing, and bigotry slaughter transsexuals" (Slattery, 2006, p.149). It has been discovered that transsexuality can be linked to stress-induced hormone release in pregnant women, or by the existence of hormone-like chemicals during pregnancy which can interrupt normal fetal development. (Slattery, 2006, p.149). Transsexuality is not unique to humans, but has been observed in multiple animal species as well.
Male and female gender roles are not necessarily biologically determined, but instead are socially constructed through traditions of our culture, community, and social pressures. Media, magazines, the Internet, advertising, and celebrities also significantly influence gender roles. Advertisers want to sell a certain self-image and lifestyle based on particular gender roles for maximum consumption. This is perpetuated by propaganda, thus enabling the advertiser to make a lot of money off of emotions. A potent example of the effectiveness of advertising can be found with the South Africa De Beers Diamond empire. De Beers hosted an advertising campaign coining the phrase "a diamond is forever" (Slattery, 2006, p. 151), This campaign was highly effective in making the public believe that a diamond is the best way to show love for a women. Therefore, based on an advertising campaign, our society has come to associate diamonds with marriage, symbols of love, or promise of marriage. Clothing and style of dress are categorized by gender as well. Magazines and media perpetuate a certain look through hair, body, fitness, and style for men and women. Those who have power and money in our society greatly influence gender identity and norms for the rest of society (Slattery, 2006). However, the rich, the media, and the advertising companies are not the only factors that affect our understanding of gender in today's society. Our understandings are also influenced by "child-rearing practices, preparation of meals, occupations, hobbies, mating rituals, and social customs established formally by laws and informally by family customs for men and women in many societies" (Slattery, 2006, p.150). The institutional structure and culture of schools also work to influence our views of acceptable gender roles.
Killing Us Softly by Jean Kilbourne is an excellent example of how males and females are portrayed differently on media advertisements.http://youtu.be/ufHrVyVgwRg
People who deviate from these gender norms in schools and society often experience ridicule, ostracism, and even physical violence. Educators must be at the forefront of addressing these problems (Slattery, 2006). Youdell (2005), suggests that schools not only reinforce dominant societal sex roles but also tend to enforce a set of sex and gender roles which are more rigid than those current in the wider society. Anthropologists and sociologists have noted that cultural norms for gender behavior vary from community to community, as well as nation to nation. Gender roles also vary over time, even within the same community. In some cultures it is dangerous to go against traditional gender roles and the pressure to conform to these roles will always be present. During periods of societal unrest, like war, the border between male and female become blurred, and necessity "disrupts traditional gender roles" (Kirschenbaum, 2006, p.220). As people strive to survive both males and females adopt roles that may have previously stereotypically assigned to the opposite gender. While traditional gender roles are often abandoned during extreme times, when life is returned to normalcy we fall back into the same stereotypical standards of assigned gender roles (Sochen, 1974). Pelias (2008) gives an interesting perspective of the place of gender roles in daily life by thinking of each individual as "an actor performing life" (p. 65). In this sense, most people simply follow along with the script that matches their role in life, one of these roles being gender. Pelias illustrates the tendency of individuals to conform when he says "I keep to myself those behaviors that are off script. I keep them to myself so that I can continue to have a part in the ongoing play [of life]" (2008, p. 67). It seems that it is often easier to fit in with tradition than it is to go against the status quo.
There are several specific issues related to gender roles, and one of the most important and common in our society is marriage and courtship. According to Slattery (2006) every culture and society has a different way of celebrating and viewing marriages. Some cultures celebrate witth exuberant parties, filled with luxury, diamond rings, white dresses and the most refined and luxurious church ceremonnies. There are other cultures in which the weddings are arrange by parents with in western cultures this is something absurd. According to Slattery (2006) marriage in the United States before the 20th century was an obligation and not a choice (Slattery, 2006, pg 150).
Stephanie Coontz has studied marriage, family, and child rearing practices in the United States from the 1850s to the present. One of the things that she has made clear is that there is not a unified history of marriage and cetainly not a golden age of marital bliss (Slattery, 2006, pg 150). About her books The Way We Never Were: American Families and Nostalgia Trap, and Marriage: A History from Obedience to Inntimacy, Slattery (2006) explains that nobody can conduct a full discussion and develop a complete understanding of what marriage and gender really mean without reading these titles first (Slattery, 2006, pg 150).
Slattery presents another important source in understanding marriage in the United States in the film Advertising and the End of the World by Sut Jhally (2004). In this film Jhally takes us directly into the world of advertisement and shows the tremendous influence of media and the consumption of meterial in our daily lives. Due to all this media revolution, the looming of our global economy can be linked to our greed and comsumption of materials. During his interview at the University of Massachusetts, professor of Communication Sut Jhally discussed this film and explained that advertisement is "pushing us constantly toward the market and consumer goods, to safitsfy our needs for love, friendship and autonomy, and in the process engendering unhappiness and dissatisfaction among the population". http://www.umass.edu/loop/people/articles/139826.php
Bullying, teasing, and violence based on gender differences are a common and tragic issue in our high schools today. In Aston's (2001b) studies -about gay bashing and murders in American high schools, he "reports that a typical high school student hears anti-gay slurs 22.5 times a day, 69% of youths perceived to be either gay or lesbian experienced some form of harassment or violence in school with over half of these experiencing it daily, and over one-third of youth reported hearing homophobic remarks from faculty and school staff" (Slattery, 2006, p. 153). As educators, we have a distinct and important duty to study these problems and implement solutions that decrease gendered violence in schools. "Since ignorance, fear, and disgust" often pave the way for mistreatment of individuals who do not fit into societal norms, it is essential that schools become a place where students can learn about those different from themselves and develop an increased acceptance of diversity (Slattery, 2006, p. 153).
Sexual Behavior
Sexual behavior can be defined as a "variety of intimate and emotional sexual expressions" with another (Slattery, 2006, p. 154). Different types of sexual behavior exist in society including same sex, opposite sex, asexual, and celibacy. It is important to note that a person is not defined by their sexual behavior, but different things can guide it. A person's physical, psychological, and emotional state all play a factor in sexual behavior. There are many purposes for sexual behavior, which are influenced by a person's cultural, societal, and/or religious views. Purposes for sexual behavior can include procreation, reproduction, and pleasure. In today's society, there are many ways for procreation to occur. For example, artificial insemination, surrogacy, and sperm or egg donations are viable ways for procreation to occur.
Whether looking to animals or humans, we recognize that there is no norm for sexual behavior. Each society may have different standards or beliefs when it comes to sexual behaviors among people. Animals also do not offer a normal sexual behavior because of the vast array of different mating patterns. Stereotypes are commonly associated with different types of sexual behavior. For example, the majority of people might think that Catholic priests and Boy Scout leaders molest young boys. In actuality, only a small portion of Catholic priests and Boy Scout leaders have been inappropriate (Slattery, 2006). Once a person commits a sexual crime however, people associate their actions with an entire group. These stereotypes can negatively impact groups of people for the mistakes of a few. As teachers, we need to realize that people are not defined by their sexual behavior.
It is important that we are well versed and knowledgeable in the sociology and psychology of sexual behavior and recognize that there are gender roles within our schools and community. In school, there should be a curriculum that includes topics such as these because it is essential for present day school children (Slattery, 2006). Biegel and Kuehl (2010) suggested that schools include sexuality and lifestyles in the curriculum through current events, history, social skills, and literature. Educators need professional development on challenges, differences, and promoting a positive school climate (Biegel & Kuehl, 2010). Teachers should also be aware that stereotypes and perceptions of sexual behaviors are hard to separate from a person's identity, religion, or culture and teachers should help students overcome these stumbling blocks.
Sexual orientation refers to the emotional and physical attraction one has for another person, of either the same or opposite gender, or both (Slattery, 2006). Most people become aware of their sexual orientation at a young age, but this awareness may develop at different rates for individuals. Additionally, attractions that are felt at a young age do not necessarily determine a person's sexual orientation. Young people often experience confusion about their sexuality, regardless of their sexual orientation, and this confusion may be compounded by pressure from societal norms, parents, friends, and religious officials.
Slattery encourages readers to "go online" at http://www.jiminbold.com/ and reflect upon Jim Weeler, a high school student who took his life from the constant tormenting (2006, p. 157).
According to Slattery (2006), sexual orientation may be influenced by a person's religious stance or societal views. This leads to the "nature versus nurture" debate, which questions whether sexuality and other personal traits are inherent from birth, or developed through socialization (Slattery, 2006, p. 157). There is no definitive answer to this debate, and Slattery believes each person should become an expert on their own sexual identity.
Religion is another factor which can have a large influence on sexual identity (Slattery, 2006). Depending on which religion a person chooses, they may have to follow certain rules which pertain to sexuality. For example, some religions require people to practice celibacy or certain marriage rituals, or may not allow divorce. Religions also influence debates on issues such as gay marriage, contraception, stem cell research, transsexual identity, and women's roles in society (Slattery, 2006, p. 159). However, it must be understood that specific religions should not become the norm for all people in a society, especially one as diverse as our own. It is not uncommon for proponents of certain religions to attempt to impose their beliefs on others.
The religion that perhaps influences sexual orientation the most is Christianity. As people have read the Bible, their interpretations of the readings have pushed most Christians into one of two groups. Following the divisions identified by Scroggs, Slattery (2006) separates theologians into two groups: "those who believe that the Christian Bible opposes homosexuality, and those who believe it does not" (p. 158). According to Slattery (2006, p. 158), those who believe homosexuality is a sin, may have the following different interpretations on why it is a sin:
1. The Bible opposes homosexuality, and is definitive for what the Church should do;
2. The Bible opposes homosexuality, but it is just one sin which is no more serious than any other sin;
3. The Bible oppose homosexuality, but it must be viewed in the larger context of the Bible--either homosexuality deviates from the norm of a male/female union, or it must be evaluated on an individual basis as a loving, affirming relationship;
4. The Bible opposes homosexuality, but considers the changing times and culture;
5. The Bible does not oppose homo sexuality, only homosexual acts.
Those who believe homosexuality is not a sin also have different interpretations. The first is that the Bible does not oppose homosexuality, but rather only sexual acts by people who are not truly homosexual. The second is that the text in the Bible does not oppose homosexuality, and texts cited against it do not actually deal with homosexuality. No matter the argument for this group of people, they believe that homosexuality is not a sin and all people have the right to be married and choose their sexual partner. It is clear that many interpretations of the Bible exist in regard to this issue, both within religions and across religions (Slattery, 2006). www.msnbc.msn.com
The following video is a scene from Grey's Anatomy and is a clear example of how pressure from parents in relation to their children's sexual preferences can create environments where people are tormented. This video teach us what religion is all about, and that God and Jesus will always love you no matter what. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q4cWnoPhuNk&feature=player_detailpage
Critical issues are becoming a part of our everyday lives, and it is necessary to hermeneutically examine them via a range of interpretations. According to Slattery (2006), "It is amazing that more than any other issue, a careful hermeneutical study that deconstructs notions of gender, sexual orientation, and identity constructions as we have done in this chapter generates such hostile responses" (p. 160). A day cannot go by where people are not inundated with issues they see on television. Gay marriage, the death penalty, universal health-care and abortion are but a few of the topics that can incite strong emotions. Slattery views issues related to sexuality and gender as the most important civil rights issues of our time. These topics cannot and should not be avoided in curriculum.
The reason that these issues are so heated was broached by Slattery (2006) when he stated that "the complexity of these issues is reflected in the impossibility of crafting legal language to cover all possibilities of gender and sexual identity" (p. 160). In one example, two women were legally married in the state of Texas; this was possible under the technicality that one woman possessed a male chromosome, but had undergone sex reassignment surgery and hormonal treatment to become a woman. In another example, a woman was barred from Spain's Olympic team due to an extra Y chromosome and hidden inner testes. In today's society, people are becoming more comfortable identifying themselves as transgendered, intersexual, and transsexual. The variety of sexual and gender possibilities make it difficult to quantify and create laws, and issues such as these become very heated among those involved.
Aside from heated debate about critical issues, we are faced with the realities of intolerance, ignorance, and fear. Gays have been beaten and harassed for their differences, and as more gender and sexual categories emerge, complexities arise. Slattery (2006) retells the story of an army private who fell in love with a transsexual (who was preparing for gender reassignment surgery), and was beaten to death by his military roommate. Although not a homosexual, the army private was perceived as such and became a victim of an anti-gay hate crime. This was what Slattery (2006) calls a "category mistake," as the army private fell into the "gray in-between area of sex and gender" (p. 163). No one fits perfectly into the all sexual and gender molds; "there is no such thing as a fixed category of normal" (Slattery, 2006, p. 164). Events such as this illustrate why it is so important to incorporate critical issues in the curriculum and educate ourselves about human differences. In this way we can build a more compassionate, understanding, just, and liberated society.
The interpretation of critical issues is a key learning point for students. In the classroom, students can learn information regarding critical issues and turn their opinion into something defensible. Some students feel a certain way based solely on opinion. However, when issues are brought up in class through debate, students can begin to see other sides of issues. Slattery (2006) points out that, "We must be vigilant " to protect people from harassment, especially students who appear different from the gender and sexual identity norms in schools" (p. 163). One possible approach for teachers is through queer theory. "Queer theory" provides a means to "subvert the entire concept of identity" by either a "deconstructive subversion of identity categories or a deliberate attempt to establish transgressive identity" (Slattery, 2006, p. 162). Reta Whitlock defines queer theory a "a deliberately disruptive, political component that is inextricable from yet not reducible to sexuality. Queer is about identifications rather than identity; in fact, it is about destabilizing social, cultural, political - all kinds - of structures...that work to solidify identities and, in so doing, skew 'power' toward the 'norm'" (Whitlock, 2010, p. 82). Regardless of the methods employed, harassment of the "other" must be stopped if we are to achieve a truly postmodern democratic society. Students must be aware of the critical issues that surround them, both in and out of school. People are not clones and everyone has something special to bring to the classroom. Students must learn to celebrate this with their fellow students. Through a study of gender and identity, students can begin to understand and appreciate differing human perspectives.
Race and Ethnicity
Like gender and sexuality issues, race and ethnicity are also important critical issues. Slattery (2006) views racism as "a system of domination and power," not just prejudicial feelings against people of color (p. 165). Racism is deeply rooted in American society and directly linked to white privilege. White people are taught not to see this privilege, which is an undeserved advantage and a conferred dominance. It acts as an "invisible package of unearned assets" (McIntosh, 1990). White privilege is assets that whites can count on using daily, but of which they are expected to be oblivious. McIntosh identifies twenty-six privileges that whites inherit. Through these privileges the myth of meritocracy is destroyed in America as whites already receive advantages that people of color do not. As McIntosh notes, "If these things are true, this is not such a free country; one's life is not what one makes it; many doors open for certain people through no virtues of their own." Slattery points out "the privileges of the plantation still benefit me" (2006, p. 165). All people can be prejudiced and biased, no matter their race or ethnicity, and whites may feel that they are subjected to "reverse discrimination" (Slattery, 2006, p. 165). However, this is not equal to the systematic racism of domination, which has been perpetuated by privileged white. Systemic racism is perpetuated in the public school system in many ways. Wanda J. Blanchett writes about three crucial examples of systemic racism in public schools. This includes inequities in the funding for schools primarily attended by African-American students versus schools with majority white student populations. Additionally schools with majority black populations employ many "uncredentialed and inadequately prepared teachers, curricula devoid of rigor, and inadequate physical structures" (Darling-Hammond, 2004;National Research Council, 2002 as cited in Blanchett, 2006, p. 25). Curriculum used in schools attended mostly by African-American students doesn't emphasize critical thinking, reasoning, and logic. (Blanchett, 2006, p. 26) White people are an integral part of solving the problem of racism--it is not just a problem for people of culture, it is a problem for our entire society.
The study of racism in the postmodern curriculum goes beyond legal issues such as segregation, integration, and affirmative action. Slattery says "racial issues in the post modern curriculum emphasize investigations of the self and conceptions of the self in relation to the other" (2006, p. 167). In other words, how do students see themselves in relation to other students? Students must be aware of their identities and privileges, and of how their cultural heritage or privilege impacts others, historically and currently. Additionally, Slattery points out that racism is not limited to whites and African Americans. It spans a wide spectrum of other racial and ethnic groups. These issues need to be openly discussed in classrooms in order for students to better understand their classmate's experiences. United States public schools teach students of many different races and cultures, and it is the teachers' responsibility to ensure they are all celebrated.
Teachers need to develop pedagogies to explore racial issues that are perpetuated in the media and the broader society in order to help students better understand their own identities and beliefs, as well as the identities and beliefs of their fellow students. Abraham P. DeLeon (2007) proposes an antiracist pedagogy that relies on newspaper headlines and images to deconstruct the racist undertones that exist in popular discourse as a means to educate students to the latent signs that perpetuate racism. DeLeon describes a story from The New York Times where a black man is shown: "Alexis's upper torso and face were on full display while a white police officer, hand on his shoulder, stood behind him. In the far background, there is a profile of another police officer" (DeLeon, 2007, p. 263). Accompanying the picture were the headlines, "The Ripper" and "Subway knife nut's rampage" (DeLeon, 2007, p. 263). The article describes the rampage of the suspect and provides an idyllic description of two of his victims, strongly suggesting that they are white. DeLeon notes that this is a "typical" representation of black men in the media and it presents a great opportunity for teachers to help their students critically examine racist representations in the media by exposing binaries. By expanding this approach across the curriculum, the dialogue over social issues can be expanded and it "may give room to students who have felt marginalized to discuss ways they have witnessed or experienced oppression" (DeLeon, 2007, p. 266).
Postmodern curriculum should help students find their true identity and dignity. This point is defended by Slattery when he says, "Race, gender and cultural studies in the postmodern curriculum are about shattering myths, especially those that perpetuate repression of the dignity and identity of the self" (2006, p. 170). Myths have to be shattered in today's society to overcome racism and white privilege. Teachers must acknowledge that it is not enough for schools to have a month of black or women's history, but these multicultural studies should be comprehensively incorporated into the curriculum. Hansot and Tyack (1988), suggest that gender is seen as a social construct, a set of cultural meanings attached to the biological division of the sexes. They explain the following: " Institutional gender policies we mean explicit rules that apply in different or similar ways to the two sexes. Institutional gender practices we mean customary arrangements, regularities of expected behavior crystallized into patterns that may or may not reflect official policy" (Hansot & Tyack, 1998, p. 742). To better understand gender and identity in schools, we need to look beyond the notion of institutions and focus on individual students.
Capital Punishment
Capital punishment is a critical issue that incites strong emotion from every individual who debates the decision. It is very difficult to put yourself in the shoes of the people who directly deal with the issue of capital punishment, so the best way to interpret capital punishment from an objective stance is to look at the facts. Currently, according to the Financial facts about the death penalty (2011) taken from the Death Penalty Information Center, it is more economically burdensome to put a prisoner to death than to give them life in prison with no parole. The article gives facts regarding the financial costs, stating that the trial alone costs an average of $620,932 which is eight times higher than non-death penalty murder trials (2011). This information alone cannot stand to prove the death penalty is wrong since murder trials are much more in-depth than non murder trials. A more alarming fact from the article is that states spends millions upon millions of dollars in an attempt to house death-row inmates. California spends 63.3 million a year housing death row inmates (Death Penalty Information Center, 2011).http://www.bing.com/images
Slattery (2006) is one of many in opposition to the death penalty. Though Slattery feels we should be tough on crime, he believes that life in prison is better than capital punishment. He states that criminals convicted of first degree murder should serve life without parole (Slattery). Slattery states similar facts presented earlier from the Death Penalty Information Center regarding the financial strains capital punishment puts on states. It would seem logical to a country driven by a free market economy to choose the more financially sound track. However, states such as Texas, defend the death penalty. According to the Death Penalty Information Center (2011), Texas taxpayers pay 2.3 million a year in death penalty cases which is around three times more costly than incarcerating that same inmate for forty years.
In Slattery's (2006) analysis of the death penalty, he also points out how the system is riddled with unfairness and incompetence. He poses that question about how poor people are supposed to defend themselves when they cannot afford the same high profile lawyers as a rich businessman or celebrity. According to Bordt (2004) there are vast inequities in the application of capital punishment. According to research, race plays a factor in the administration of capital punishment. African Americans are more likely to receive the death penalty than their white counterparts. Slattery (2006) points out an even more troubling fact when he states that two out of three death penalty sentences were overturned because of mistakes that were made. That is sixty-seven percent. This is a very unsettling number and something that deserves much more attention when debating the death penalty.
The inequities in the application of capital punishment stem even further that those of racial unfairness. Throughout American history female executions have been rare in comparison to the number of executions of men (Rapaport, 1990). While there are profound cultural inhibitions against the execution of convicted women, capital punishment supporters argue that "an evil woman deprives herself of the sanctuary of her sex by engaging in violent conduct" (Rapaport, 1990, p. 503). Although the purposes of capital punishment are equally applicable to both sexes, the uncommonness of women on death row forces one to question whether or not women murders receive favorable treatment from the courts (Rapaport, 1990). According to Rapaport (1990), no capital punishment statute classifies by gender, but gender bias seemingly affects the capital punishment administration in this country.
The final, and most troubling, imbalance in death penalty cases that Slattery (2006) identifies is that there are still racial biases that come into play when people seek retribution for the most heinous of crimes. In a striking personal anecdote, Slattery relates the fear and prejudice that shook his community in the wake of two murders. The white community was convinced that David and Loretta were murdered by a black person. Citizens were shocked to find out that it was a pair of white oilfield workers who committed the crime instead. This points out the deeply held racism that still exists in this country's cultural fabric. A recent example occurred on September 21, 2011. Troy Davis was executed for the murder of a White Police Officer although there was substantial evidence pointing to his innocence. Lawrence Brewer was executed for the brutal, race-fueled murder of James Byrd, a Black man who Brewer and two other men dragged from the back of a pickup truck until he was dismembered. Brewer has not only admitted to the crime, but has bragged about it. The Byrd family asked for Brewer to spend life in jail rather than receive the death penalty. The family of the man Davis was convicted of murdering on the other hand was adamant that he receive his punishment and be brought to justice (Lee, 2011). Race is still a criteria for separating someone as "other" and people prefer to blame the "other" when awful crimes are committed. It is easier to convict and kill those that have been labeled as different from the norm through race or social status. It is much more difficult to create the rage and desire for retribution needed to put someone to death when they are identified as part of your own cultural clique.
The main question in all of this discussion is what having a death penalty says about our society. As Slattery states, capital punishment does not "deter crime, reduce violence, save money, or impart justice" (2006, p. 173). Instead, it is little more than retribution meted out by an angry society. Oftentimes, as in the case of David and Loretta's murders, this anger is misplaced and focused on the easiest targets - those that lie outside the protective shroud of sameness. Once we realize and recognize that the death penalty is more about retribution than justice, hopefully we can move forward as a society to more humane forms of punishment.
In the following video Ron McAndrew former Florida warden repudiates the death penalty, and refers to it as the most horryfing thing to do. Even though in the past Mr. McAndrew was in favor of the death penalty, all it took was for him to be present in one execution to see how unhumane it was. In the video he provides a description of his experience, and what would be the best punishment for those men who have committed horrible crimes. We need to prove that we are a moral nation with very high values, however, Slattery is correct when he says that "how a civilized democracy can continue to allow such a barbaric practice, and why the United States is willing to accept a high level of error in capital punishment (Slattery, 2006, pg174).
Identity & the Curriculum
Slattery (2006) argues that curriculum studies in the postmodern era are more than just discussions about gender and race issues. These studies are about knowing and recognizing the social and contextual roles that exist in our society. These roles affect a person's image of male and female identity, and they affect their perceptions of self. Madeleine Grumet discusses these ideas in her book, Bitter Milk: Women and Teaching. She believes that teachers, especially women teachers, must understand what teaching means to them. By diving in and investigating the reasons why we teach we may find that this knowledge comes to consciousness through human relationships. Grumet's argument is echoed by other feminists such as Noddings and Belenky in that the postmodern curriculum is moving forward so that racial, gendered, and cultural issues are not just taught in terms of tolerance. Even the word tolerance implies that there is something wrong with the "other" that must be tolerated. The curriculum is a perfect vehicle for driving students "to learn from one another, not only about differences but also about the self" (Slattery, 2006, p. 177). By learning about oneself and teaching students to value themselves, they can hold up under larger societal pressures that may seek to erode their self esteem for not being part of the ruling norm.
Delgado Bernal (2002) argues that through stories and personal narratives, knowledge and understanding can better be obtained by the student of color. Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Latino Critical Theory (LatCrit) are a framework "that challenges the dominant discourse" (Delgado Bernal, 2002, p. 109) giving "credence to critical raced-gendered epistemologies that recognize students of color as holders and creators of knowledge" (Delgado Bernal, 2002, p. 107). CRT and LatCrit emphasize experiential knowledge, which includes personal histories, experiences, cultures, and languages. Measurements of knowledge are no longer Eurocentric. Rather, knowledge is personal and is created through experience and knowing oneself. Through this epistemology, valuable and relevant learning occurs.
Through the consciousness of self that is gained through knowledge, a curriculum that is "about empowerment and liberation" (Slattery, 2006, p. 176) can be developed. Today, most curricula is written to assimilate students into American culture by educating others in terms of tolerance. Slattery argues that curriculum in the postmodern era must be concerned with the politics of power. Curriculum has the power to educate everyone, including those with the power. Within the framework of Slattery's discussion regarding race, sex, and ethnicity, the curriculum can have a major impact on diverse students and have an ability to empower or diminish students' individual truths and their ways of knowing.
Curriculum development programs in the past have basically ignored race and gender becoming homogenized and disconnected. These programs have viewed knowledge as something that was objectively knowable. By teaching knowledge objectively, curriculum programs have been able to avoid any issues that are controversial or contentious. The avoidance of controversy has happened because of a pervasive distrust in the capability of individuals to discuss these types of issues. Slattery contends that the curriculum development in the postmodern era will expose the consequences of teaching from a curriculum that is devoid of any discussion of race. Teacher education programs must embrace critical race theory in order to understand how curriculum continues the "subordination of Students of Color" (Solorzano, 1997, p. 8) while Anthony Whitson's concept of "heteroglossia," the "inclusion of multifaceted and conflicting voices," aims to challenge the curriculum status quo in regards to race (Slattery, 2006, p. 178). Whitson's belief is curriculum should not be the domain of a single discourse but provide students the tools to develop social competence through multiple discourses (Slattery, 2006).
The multiple discourses that Slattery (2006) discusses require the curriculum to deconstruct our current views about gender, sexuality, and race. In order to do this the postmodern curriculum will not allow us to simply teach tolerance, but will require us to deconstruct our master narrative and shift towards an "autobiographical, phenomenological, and postructural analysis" in postmodern scholarship (Slattery, p. 179). This shift in postmodern curriculum recognizes that each individual looks at the word through their own eyes. If you ask eight different people about a topic, you will receive eight different answers. According to Slattery, curriculum in the postmodern era will provide ways in which students can see the influences that create their worldviews and their sense of self. In this way, students learn to appreciate and acknowledge the unique worldviews of the many people in their sphere of influence. Slattery argues that the curriculum in schools should set people free and not be the vehicle used to force individuals to conform. By setting people free from limited views, the curriculum can become vehicles for "exposing the impotence of traditional curriculum development in the face of the tragedies of contemporary society" (Slattery, 2006, p.181). This, of course, is a huge divergence from today's industrialized, assembly-line approach to schooling. In schools today, the only acceptable discourse is that coming from the representatives of the hegemony (the teachers and administrators). Only by encouraging these multiple discourses can a truly multicultural, postmodern society develop.
Bifurcation exists in Western Society in a way that causes us to want to eliminate one side of the contradiction. Slattery discusses an example of this using whiteness. Traditional white racial identities "do not allow whiteness to be understood in ways other than being in opposition to nonwhites" (2006, p. 182). This view of the world causes us to neglect the contributions of other races to our history and leaves us without the full understanding of who we are and where we have come from. The Western philosophies have focused on the dualities found in nature and have based political policy on this idea of eliminating the contradiction. This view of the world is socially constructed, as proofed by the way other Eastern philosophies view the world, an example being yin and yang or parts to a whole. The way we construct the world is our perspective, (if you are not black, then you must be white), but Slattery points out that Eastern philosophies show that there can be multiple perspectives.
The goal of postmodern curriculum development is to discover these perspectives, often discussed through different discourses and narratives, and often coming from our students, and use them to challenge the current metanarrative. Curriculum in the postmodern era seeks to deconstruct our metanarratives about gender, sexual identity, and race. In this deconstruction we will discover and bring to light the unjust power relations and violence that exist in our society. The result of deconstructing our current beliefs is that we will learn to celebrate the uniqueness of each person, culture, and event "within the context of an interdependent cosmological view" (Slattery, 2006, p. 186). Slattery states that "all occasions are important and dynamic parts of the fabric of the whole", which, as teachers, we can take to mean that all students are important and dynamic parts of our society because of their uniqueness, not in spite of it (2006, p. 186).
References Asher , N. (2007). Made in the (multicultural) U.S.A.: Unpacking tensions of race, culture, gender, and sexuality in education. Educational Researcher, 36(2), 65-73. DOI:10.3102/0013189X07299188 http://er.aera.net Biegel, S. & Kuehl, S. (2010). Safe at School: Addressing the school environment and LGBT safety through policy and legislation. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED513906.pdf
Blanchett, W.J. (2006). Disproportionate Representation of African American Students in Special Education: Acknowledging the Role of White Privilege and Racism. Educational Researcher, 35(6), 24-28. Retrieved from JSTOR.
Bordt, R. (2004). Only some are dead men walking; teaching about race discrimination and the death penalty. Teaching Sociology, 32, 358-373. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Death Penalty Information Center. (2011) Financial facts about the death penalty. Retrieved from http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/costs-deathpenalty DeLeon, A.P. (2007). Beware of "black" the ripper! Racism, representation, and building antiracist pedagogy. The Social Studies, 9 (6), 263-267. doi: 10.3200/TSSS.97.6.263-267 Delgado Bernal, D. (2002). Critical race theory, latino critical theory, and critical raced-gendered epistemologies: Recognizing students of color as holders and creators of knowledge. Qualitative Inquiry, 8 (2), 105-126. doi:10.1177/107780040200800107
Fragrancia. (2007, November 26). Killing us Softly 3. [videofile]. Retrieved from http://youtu.be/ufHrVyVgwRg Hansot, E., & Tyack, D. (1988). Gender in american public schools: thinking institutionally.Journal of culture and society,134, 741-760. Retrieved from http://fog.its.uiowa.edu/~c07b150/hansot_and_tyack_article.pdf Kirschenbaum, L.A. (2006). The Alienated Body: Gender Identity and the Memory of the Siege of Leningrad. In N.M. Wingfield, and M. Bucur (Ed.), Gender & War in the Twentieth Century Eastern Europe. 220-254. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. Lee, T. (2011). Troy Davis and Lawrence Brewer, A Tale of Two Executions. Huff Post Black Voices. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/09/21/troy-davis-and-lawrence-b_n_974293.html
McIntosh, P. (1990). White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack. Independent School, 49(2), 31. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
NOH8Campaign. (2010, November 10). An Anti-Bullying Message from the NOH8 Campaign. [video file]. Retrieved from http://youtu.be/MhFZ7qjrw5U
Pelias, R. (2008). Making my masculine body behave. International Review of Qualitative Research, 1(1), 65-74. Rapaport, E. (1990). Questions about gender and the death penalty. Golden Gate Law Review, 20(3), 503-555. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.law.ggu.edu/ggulrev/vol20/iss3/3 Slattery, P. (2006). Curriculum development in the postmodern era. New York: Routledge. Sochen, J. (1974). Herstory: A Woman�s View of American History. New York: Alfred Publishing Company. Solozano, D.G. (1997). Images and words that wound: Critical race theory, racial stereotyping, and teacher education. Teacher Education Quarterly, 24, 5-19. Retrieved from: http://www.teqjournal.org/backvols/1997/24_3/1997v24n302.PDF Thornton, S. (2009). Silence on gays and lesbians in social studies curriculum. In D. Flinders & S. Thornton (Eds.), The Curriculum Studies Reader (p. 364-367). New York NY: RoutledgeFalmer. Whitlock, R.U. (2010). Getting queer: Teacher education, gender studies, and the cross-disciplinary quest for queer pedagogies. Issues in Teacher Education, 19 (2), 81-104. Retrieved from Wilson Web.
Youdell, D. (2005). Sex-gender-sexuality: how sex, gender, and sexuality constellations are constituted in secondary schools. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Education, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK. Retrieved from http://eprints.ioe.ac.uk/2079/1/Youdell2005SexGenderSexuality.pdf
Introduction to Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Sexuality in the Curriculum
Where did gender identities and gender roles originate? What is biological sex? Many people are born with genitalia and sexual organs, which are in direct correlation to their genetic make-up. Males are considered to have XY chromosomes and females are considered to have XX chromosomes. However, intersex abnormalities occur when individuals are born with both male and female genitalia or have multiple chromosomal outcomes that can make them appear to have more male or female features that do not align with their identified gender. The Intersex Society of America reports that there is a stigma that is associated with being intersex. Additionally, trauma stimulated by unwanted genital surgeries as infants perpetuates confusion (Slattery, 2006).
Slattery (2006) identifies disgust as one of the reasons that issues of prejudice and violence continue in our society today. This disgust may result from taste preferences, repressed desires, and cultural taboos, that create a sense of entitlement, where individuals feel justified in wrongly treating those people who are different from themselves. Individuals justify their prejudices' and violence toward those who are "different" with irrational thoughts that are perpetuated by psychological implants through acculturation and association. Slattery states, "a consuming hatred prevents us from moving forward to address urgent ecological, economic, health, energy, and water issues" (2006, p. 143). Disgust must be dealt with through reflection and self-evaluation. It should never be a part of the reason for making decisions on laws or policies. Awareness is necessary. Yet, media and advertising does no justice on portraying violence and sexuality as normal. Parent further united with Project Unmask http://www.parentfurther.com/mediacompressed the idea of media and how it drags young adolescents into their media ideas.
It could be said that prejudices and hatred stem from ignorance. In the case of sex-related issues it is important to understand that sexual orientation does not define a person's sexual behavior. Sexual behavior is not necessarily related to sexual orientation, gender identity, or cultural norms. Additionally, the psychology of gender may not even match the biology of the anatomy or genetic makeup (Slattery, 2006). This topic is directly related to social justice and current events. Bullying is prevalent in schools right now and there are advocates who believe that the suicide rate can be tied to the effects of bullying. Teenagers are getting bullied, feeling tormented, experiencing helplessness at school as well as on the Internet. In some cases, teenagers feel threatened in their own homes.
- An anti-bullying public service announcement by the NOH8 campaign.
Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Sexuality in the Curriculum
Multicultural discourse and practice are well established in the field of education (Asher, 2007). Gender, race and sexuality continue to be a conflict in the classroom, curriculum, and in the community. Although multicultural education discourse is well established, stereotypical representations and repressive silences persist in the sphere of practice. One may argue that multicultural education has generally focused on race and culture, paying limited attention to differences of sexuality, gender and class (Asher, 2007). The evidence is abundantly clear that the human community is amazingly diverse and our multicultural diversity is one of our greatest strengths to be celebrated and not a liability to be eradicated. Therefore, "everything we teach is incomplete if we do not constantly foreground issues of prejudice and violence in our schools and society" (Slattery, 2006, p. 144). Slattery states, "the twentieth century is filled with other tragedies..." (p. 143). There is a consumption of this hate and our society is not able to move forward until each issue is eliminated with its prejudice. "Our survival as a species depends upon uniting in our common humanity" (Slattery, 2006, p. 143). Our society has become multicultural; there is not a single mold into which everyone fits. Individuals are unique and diverse in their own way. "Understanding our common humanity demands respect and appreciation for the diversity that enriches us all" (Slattery, 2006, p.144).Integrating our community and education with social justice can be difficult. Movements occur and many great leaders have helped pave the way for the opportunities we have today. Slattery (2006) embraces leaders such as Rosa Parks, Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela, Desmond Tutu, Oscar Romero, and Ghandi. These famous people have helped society and education to embrace such movements to overcome "issues of prejudice and violence in our schools and society" (Slattery, 2006, p. 144). Slattery feels this chapter is necessary because "curriculum development in the postmodern era must aggressively and consistently include lessons and experiences that will ameliorate the divisions and hatred we face in the world today" (2006, p. 144). Although, one could argue that the continuation of a myth, such as portraying Rosa Parks as a simple seamstress with tired feet instead of an active member of the Civil Rights Movement practicing civil disobedience marginalizes the female efforts of the movement.
Photo 1. Photo 2. Photo 3. Photo 4. Photo 5. Photo 6.
When people demonstrate ignorance it is usually associated with fear and lack of information. Slattery (2006) states that "arrogance and ignorance about race, gender, sexuality and ethnicity is the root cause of senseless suffering: bullying in schools, segregation in society, workplace discrimination, salary inequities, identity confusion and repression, hate crimes and much more" (p. 145). He reminds us that, "we must educate ourselves and our students about these issues," (Slattery, 2006, p. 146) because if we do not then prejudices and violence will continue. Education and social justice in the postmodern era must explore curriculum development as "a commitment to a robust investigation of cultural, ethnic, gender, and identity issues" (Slattery, 2006, p. 146). Our society needs to understand the harm it is causing, therefore, "we must explore conscious and unconscious emotions such as fear, visceral loathing, and disgust" (Slattery, 2006, p. 146).
According to Thornton (2009), heteronormativity is the belief that the typical human is heterosexual. "Heteronormativity paints an inaccurate picture of social life and perpetuates intolerance, sometimes with tangibly destructive consequences such as harassment and physical violence" (Thornton, 2009, p. 362). Curriculum needs to be created in order to provide students with multiple perspectives and experiences. The exclusion of homosexuals from curriculum encourages students to continue to believe that the typical American is heterosexual. Homosexuality is specifically left out of the social studies curriculum. For example, in a popular high school U.S. History textbook, James Baldwin is a novelist portrayed as an African American who wrote about discrimination. The textbook fails to mention that Baldwin was homosexual and also wrote about the discrimination he faced because of his sexual orientation (Thornton, 2009, pg. 363).
Illustration 2: http://www.samuseum.org/exhibitions/782-animal-instinct-the-photographs-of-daniel-lee
Daniel Lee, Circus 2010.
Slattery (2006) identifies five issues of sexuality and gender: biological sex, gender identity, gender roles, sexual behavior, and sexual orientation.
Biological Sex
Children born with sex organs such as penile genitalia or vaginal genitalia will result as a male or a female. However, children born with both genitalia are labeled as intersexual. Unfortunately, it is those intersex individuals who suffer from ridicule and humiliation. Organizations, such as the Intersex Society of North America (http://www.isna.org), as well as many individuals are "devoted to systemic change to end the shame, secrecy, and unwanted genital surgeries for people born with anatomy that someone decided is not standard for male or female" (Slattery, 2006, p. 148). For example, the television drama series Grey's Anatomy had an episode that demonstrated this uncertainty. A pubescent girl was diagnosed with an unusual mass on one of her ovaries. When her doctor discovers it is not a mass, but instead it is a testicle, the intern feels compelled to inform his patient. The patient's parents were against her knowing the truth, whereas her intern thought she had the right to know. As a result, when the adolescent found out it was a testicle, she felt relieved because she knew something did not feel right. The confusion about her sexuality was no longer an issue because she found out she was an intersex individual. "Medical professionals and healthcare providers are gradually becoming more aware of the need to carefully examine issues related to intersexuality and in many cases to refrain from performing surgery on infants" (Slattery, 2006, p. 148). As children grow, it is natural for them to explore and wonder about their body. It is part of nature and biology. Slattery believes students, "must become familiar with intersexuality because they will certainly have intersex children in their schools and in their family who deserve love and understanding just like any other child" (2006, p. 148).Illustration 4: Cover of Artemis Smith's 1959 [[/wiki/Lesbian_pulp_fiction|lesbian pulp fiction]] novel The Third Sex (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_gender).
Gender Identity
"All people identify psychologically and emotionally as either man, woman, transgender or androgynous and this identity is not contingent upon biology" (Slattery, 2006, pp. 148-149). "Gender identity is very complex and fluid" (Slattery, 2006, p. 149). The movie Transmerica does an excellent job explaining the experiences of transgendered individuals. Although this film is one small example of what transgendered individuals experience, the story captures the essence and emotion they endure during their lifetime. There has to be an understanding that not all individuals are born with specific gender based on biology. Gender should no longer be considered a binary occurrence because there are many individuals that exist in society who do not cleanly fit into a traditional male or female gender classifications. Gender identity has expanded to include other roles that better describe the position of those who fall outside of the historical binary.According to Slattery (2006), there are three gender identity roles. The most common gender identity occurs when both the biological and psychological characteristics match. Deborah Youdell (2005) discusses the importance of rejecting the silent acceptance that sexual orientation is a biological, psychological, or psychic pre-given that is synonymous with sexuality and exists in a causal, linear, relationship with sexual identity because it calls into question the plausibility of severing the connection between gender and sexuality. This circumstance accounts for the traditional male/female view of gender. Transgender identity is where the biological and psychological characteristics do not match. For example, a person born with male genitalia, XY chromosomes, and high levels of testosterone, may not consider himself as male (Slattery, 2006, p 149). "Most transgender persons will assume a name and dress to match their identity" (Slattery, 2006, p. 149). Some will choose to have surgery to align their physical and psychological selves and refer to himself or herself as "transsexual" (Slattery, 2006, p. 149). The third gender identity is androgynous, which represents people who neither identify nor dress themselves as male or female (Slattery, 2006, p. 149).
Transsexuality, also called "Gender Dysphoria" is the conflict between gender identity and physical sex and is almost always evident to the individual at an early age. Some transsexuals report knowing of the disconnect between their physical gender and their psychological gender as early as preschool (Slattery, 2006, p.149). Transsexuality is independent of sex. In fact, most transsexuals are also heterosexuals, becoming romantically involved with the opposite sex of which they psychologically associate. The discrepancy between the body and mind of a transsexual can cause an enormous amount of suffering throughout the life of the individual. Research indicates that "some fifty percent of transsexuals die by age 30, usually by their own hand... Social oppression, culturally indoctrinated shame, self-loathing, and bigotry slaughter transsexuals" (Slattery, 2006, p.149). It has been discovered that transsexuality can be linked to stress-induced hormone release in pregnant women, or by the existence of hormone-like chemicals during pregnancy which can interrupt normal fetal development. (Slattery, 2006, p.149). Transsexuality is not unique to humans, but has been observed in multiple animal species as well.
To learn more about Transsexuality, link to http://transsexual.org/.
Gender Roles
Male and female gender roles are not necessarily biologically determined, but instead are socially constructed through traditions of our culture, community, and social pressures. Media, magazines, the Internet, advertising, and celebrities also significantly influence gender roles. Advertisers want to sell a certain self-image and lifestyle based on particular gender roles for maximum consumption. This is perpetuated by propaganda, thus enabling the advertiser to make a lot of money off of emotions. A potent example of the effectiveness of advertising can be found with the South Africa De Beers Diamond empire. De Beers hosted an advertising campaign coining the phrase "a diamond is forever" (Slattery, 2006, p. 151), This campaign was highly effective in making the public believe that a diamond is the best way to show love for a women. Therefore, based on an advertising campaign, our society has come to associate diamonds with marriage, symbols of love, or promise of marriage. Clothing and style of dress are categorized by gender as well. Magazines and media perpetuate a certain look through hair, body, fitness, and style for men and women. Those who have power and money in our society greatly influence gender identity and norms for the rest of society (Slattery, 2006). However, the rich, the media, and the advertising companies are not the only factors that affect our understanding of gender in today's society. Our understandings are also influenced by "child-rearing practices, preparation of meals, occupations, hobbies, mating rituals, and social customs established formally by laws and informally by family customs for men and women in many societies" (Slattery, 2006, p.150). The institutional structure and culture of schools also work to influence our views of acceptable gender roles.Killing Us Softly by Jean Kilbourne is an excellent example of how males and females are portrayed differently on media advertisements.http://youtu.be/ufHrVyVgwRg
People who deviate from these gender norms in schools and society often experience ridicule, ostracism, and even physical violence. Educators must be at the forefront of addressing these problems (Slattery, 2006). Youdell (2005), suggests that schools not only reinforce dominant societal sex roles but also tend to enforce a set of sex and gender roles which are more rigid than those current in the wider society. Anthropologists and sociologists have noted that cultural norms for gender behavior vary from community to community, as well as nation to nation. Gender roles also vary over time, even within the same community. In some cultures it is dangerous to go against traditional gender roles and the pressure to conform to these roles will always be present. During periods of societal unrest, like war, the border between male and female become blurred, and necessity "disrupts traditional gender roles" (Kirschenbaum, 2006, p.220). As people strive to survive both males and females adopt roles that may have previously stereotypically assigned to the opposite gender. While traditional gender roles are often abandoned during extreme times, when life is returned to normalcy we fall back into the same stereotypical standards of assigned gender roles (Sochen, 1974). Pelias (2008) gives an interesting perspective of the place of gender roles in daily life by thinking of each individual as "an actor performing life" (p. 65). In this sense, most people simply follow along with the script that matches their role in life, one of these roles being gender. Pelias illustrates the tendency of individuals to conform when he says "I keep to myself those behaviors that are off script. I keep them to myself so that I can continue to have a part in the ongoing play [of life]" (2008, p. 67). It seems that it is often easier to fit in with tradition than it is to go against the status quo.
There are several specific issues related to gender roles, and one of the most important and common in our society is marriage and courtship. According to Slattery (2006) every culture and society has a different way of celebrating and viewing marriages. Some cultures celebrate witth exuberant parties, filled with luxury, diamond rings, white dresses and the most refined and luxurious church ceremonnies. There are other cultures in which the weddings are arrange by parents with in western cultures this is something absurd. According to Slattery (2006) marriage in the United States before the 20th century was an obligation and not a choice (Slattery, 2006, pg 150).
http://www.stephaniecoontz.com/
Stephanie Coontz has studied marriage, family, and child rearing practices in the United States from the 1850s to the present. One of the things that she has made clear is that there is not a unified history of marriage and cetainly not a golden age of marital bliss (Slattery, 2006, pg 150). About her books The Way We Never Were: American Families and Nostalgia Trap, and Marriage: A History from Obedience to Inntimacy, Slattery (2006) explains that nobody can conduct a full discussion and develop a complete understanding of what marriage and gender really mean without reading these titles first (Slattery, 2006, pg 150).
Slattery presents another important source in understanding marriage in the United States in the film Advertising and the End of the World by Sut Jhally (2004). In this film Jhally takes us directly into the world of advertisement and shows the tremendous influence of media and the consumption of meterial in our daily lives. Due to all this media revolution, the looming of our global economy can be linked to our greed and comsumption of materials. During his interview at the University of Massachusetts, professor of Communication Sut Jhally discussed this film and explained that advertisement is "pushing us constantly toward the market and consumer goods, to safitsfy our needs for love, friendship and autonomy, and in the process engendering unhappiness and dissatisfaction among the population".
http://www.umass.edu/loop/people/articles/139826.php
http://www.kanopystreaming.com/catalog/mediacomm/marketing-advertising
http://julzabra.wordpress.com/2011/03/10/how-advertising-could-be-the-end-of-the-world/
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LstnduT3zrk&feature=player_detailpage
Bullying, teasing, and violence based on gender differences are a common and tragic issue in our high schools today. In Aston's (2001b) studies -about gay bashing and murders in American high schools, he "reports that a typical high school student hears anti-gay slurs 22.5 times a day, 69% of youths perceived to be either gay or lesbian experienced some form of harassment or violence in school with over half of these experiencing it daily, and over one-third of youth reported hearing homophobic remarks from faculty and school staff" (Slattery, 2006, p. 153). As educators, we have a distinct and important duty to study these problems and implement solutions that decrease gendered violence in schools. "Since ignorance, fear, and disgust" often pave the way for mistreatment of individuals who do not fit into societal norms, it is essential that schools become a place where students can learn about those different from themselves and develop an increased acceptance of diversity (Slattery, 2006, p. 153).
Sexual Behavior
Sexual behavior can be defined as a "variety of intimate and emotional sexual expressions" with another (Slattery, 2006, p. 154). Different types of sexual behavior exist in society including same sex, opposite sex, asexual, and celibacy. It is important to note that a person is not defined by their sexual behavior, but different things can guide it. A person's physical, psychological, and emotional state all play a factor in sexual behavior. There are many purposes for sexual behavior, which are influenced by a person's cultural, societal, and/or religious views. Purposes for sexual behavior can include procreation, reproduction, and pleasure. In today's society, there are many ways for procreation to occur. For example, artificial insemination, surrogacy, and sperm or egg donations are viable ways for procreation to occur.Whether looking to animals or humans, we recognize that there is no norm for sexual behavior. Each society may have different standards or beliefs when it comes to sexual behaviors among people. Animals also do not offer a normal sexual behavior because of the vast array of different mating patterns. Stereotypes are commonly associated with different types of sexual behavior. For example, the majority of people might think that Catholic priests and Boy Scout leaders molest young boys. In actuality, only a small portion of Catholic priests and Boy Scout leaders have been inappropriate (Slattery, 2006). Once a person commits a sexual crime however, people associate their actions with an entire group. These stereotypes can negatively impact groups of people for the mistakes of a few. As teachers, we need to realize that people are not defined by their sexual behavior.
It is important that we are well versed and knowledgeable in the sociology and psychology of sexual behavior and recognize that there are gender roles within our schools and community. In school, there should be a curriculum that includes topics such as these because it is essential for present day school children (Slattery, 2006). Biegel and Kuehl (2010) suggested that schools include sexuality and lifestyles in the curriculum through current events, history, social skills, and literature. Educators need professional development on challenges, differences, and promoting a positive school climate (Biegel & Kuehl, 2010). Teachers should also be aware that stereotypes and perceptions of sexual behaviors are hard to separate from a person's identity, religion, or culture and teachers should help students overcome these stumbling blocks.
HEADLINE NEWS: W.Va. policy aims to protect students from bullying over sexual orientation, gender identity
(visit http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/wva-policy-aims-to-protect-students-from-bullying-over-sexual-orientation-gender-identity/2011/11/07/gIQAqAVluM_story.html)
Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation refers to the emotional and physical attraction one has for another person, of either the same or opposite gender, or both (Slattery, 2006). Most people become aware of their sexual orientation at a young age, but this awareness may develop at different rates for individuals. Additionally, attractions that are felt at a young age do not necessarily determine a person's sexual orientation. Young people often experience confusion about their sexuality, regardless of their sexual orientation, and this confusion may be compounded by pressure from societal norms, parents, friends, and religious officials.Slattery encourages readers to "go online" at http://www.jiminbold.com/ and reflect upon Jim Weeler, a high school student who took his life from the constant tormenting (2006, p. 157).
According to Slattery (2006), sexual orientation may be influenced by a person's religious stance or societal views. This leads to the "nature versus nurture" debate, which questions whether sexuality and other personal traits are inherent from birth, or developed through socialization (Slattery, 2006, p. 157). There is no definitive answer to this debate, and Slattery believes each person should become an expert on their own sexual identity.
Religion is another factor which can have a large influence on sexual identity (Slattery, 2006). Depending on which religion a person chooses, they may have to follow certain rules which pertain to sexuality. For example, some religions require people to practice celibacy or certain marriage rituals, or may not allow divorce. Religions also influence debates on issues such as gay marriage, contraception, stem cell research, transsexual identity, and women's roles in society (Slattery, 2006, p. 159). However, it must be understood that specific religions should not become the norm for all people in a society, especially one as diverse as our own. It is not uncommon for proponents of certain religions to attempt to impose their beliefs on others.
The religion that perhaps influences sexual orientation the most is Christianity. As people have read the Bible, their interpretations of the readings have pushed most Christians into one of two groups. Following the divisions identified by Scroggs, Slattery (2006) separates theologians into two groups: "those who believe that the Christian Bible opposes homosexuality, and those who believe it does not" (p. 158). According to Slattery (2006, p. 158), those who believe homosexuality is a sin, may have the following different interpretations on why it is a sin:
1. The Bible opposes homosexuality, and is definitive for what the Church should do;
2. The Bible opposes homosexuality, but it is just one sin which is no more serious than any other sin;
3. The Bible oppose homosexuality, but it must be viewed in the larger context of the Bible--either homosexuality deviates from the norm of a male/female union, or it must be evaluated on an individual basis as a loving, affirming relationship;
4. The Bible opposes homosexuality, but considers the changing times and culture;
5. The Bible does not oppose homo sexuality, only homosexual acts.
Those who believe homosexuality is not a sin also have different interpretations. The first is that the Bible does not oppose homosexuality, but rather only sexual acts by people who are not truly homosexual. The second is that the text in the Bible does not oppose homosexuality, and texts cited against it do not actually deal with homosexuality. No matter the argument for this group of people, they believe that homosexuality is not a sin and all people have the right to be married and choose their sexual partner. It is clear that many interpretations of the Bible exist in regard to this issue, both within religions and across religions (Slattery, 2006).
www.msnbc.msn.com
The following video is a scene from Grey's Anatomy and is a clear example of how pressure from parents in relation to their children's sexual preferences can create environments where people are tormented. This video teach us what religion is all about, and that God and Jesus will always love you no matter what.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q4cWnoPhuNk&feature=player_detailpage
Children and Homosexuality video http://www.videojug.com/interview/children-and-homosexuality- What doctors have to say about children and their homosexuality.
Interpreting Critical Issues
Critical issues are becoming a part of our everyday lives, and it is necessary to hermeneutically examine them via a range of interpretations. According to Slattery (2006), "It is amazing that more than any other issue, a careful hermeneutical study that deconstructs notions of gender, sexual orientation, and identity constructions as we have done in this chapter generates such hostile responses" (p. 160). A day cannot go by where people are not inundated with issues they see on television. Gay marriage, the death penalty, universal health-care and abortion are but a few of the topics that can incite strong emotions. Slattery views issues related to sexuality and gender as the most important civil rights issues of our time. These topics cannot and should not be avoided in curriculum.The reason that these issues are so heated was broached by Slattery (2006) when he stated that "the complexity of these issues is reflected in the impossibility of crafting legal language to cover all possibilities of gender and sexual identity" (p. 160). In one example, two women were legally married in the state of Texas; this was possible under the technicality that one woman possessed a male chromosome, but had undergone sex reassignment surgery and hormonal treatment to become a woman. In another example, a woman was barred from Spain's Olympic team due to an extra Y chromosome and hidden inner testes. In today's society, people are becoming more comfortable identifying themselves as transgendered, intersexual, and transsexual. The variety of sexual and gender possibilities make it difficult to quantify and create laws, and issues such as these become very heated among those involved.
Aside from heated debate about critical issues, we are faced with the realities of intolerance, ignorance, and fear. Gays have been beaten and harassed for their differences, and as more gender and sexual categories emerge, complexities arise. Slattery (2006) retells the story of an army private who fell in love with a transsexual (who was preparing for gender reassignment surgery), and was beaten to death by his military roommate. Although not a homosexual, the army private was perceived as such and became a victim of an anti-gay hate crime. This was what Slattery (2006) calls a "category mistake," as the army private fell into the "gray in-between area of sex and gender" (p. 163). No one fits perfectly into the all sexual and gender molds; "there is no such thing as a fixed category of normal" (Slattery, 2006, p. 164). Events such as this illustrate why it is so important to incorporate critical issues in the curriculum and educate ourselves about human differences. In this way we can build a more compassionate, understanding, just, and liberated society.
The interpretation of critical issues is a key learning point for students. In the classroom, students can learn information regarding critical issues and turn their opinion into something defensible. Some students feel a certain way based solely on opinion. However, when issues are brought up in class through debate, students can begin to see other sides of issues. Slattery (2006) points out that, "We must be vigilant " to protect people from harassment, especially students who appear different from the gender and sexual identity norms in schools" (p. 163). One possible approach for teachers is through queer theory. "Queer theory" provides a means to "subvert the entire concept of identity" by either a "deconstructive subversion of identity categories or a deliberate attempt to establish transgressive identity" (Slattery, 2006, p. 162). Reta Whitlock defines queer theory a "a deliberately disruptive, political component that is inextricable from yet not reducible to sexuality. Queer is about identifications rather than identity; in fact, it is about destabilizing social, cultural, political - all kinds - of structures...that work to solidify identities and, in so doing, skew 'power' toward the 'norm'" (Whitlock, 2010, p. 82). Regardless of the methods employed, harassment of the "other" must be stopped if we are to achieve a truly postmodern democratic society. Students must be aware of the critical issues that surround them, both in and out of school. People are not clones and everyone has something special to bring to the classroom. Students must learn to celebrate this with their fellow students. Through a study of gender and identity, students can begin to understand and appreciate differing human perspectives.
Race and Ethnicity
Like gender and sexuality issues, race and ethnicity are also important critical issues. Slattery (2006) views racism as "a system of domination and power," not just prejudicial feelings against people of color (p. 165). Racism is deeply rooted in American society and directly linked to white privilege. White people are taught not to see this privilege, which is an undeserved advantage and a conferred dominance. It acts as an "invisible package of unearned assets" (McIntosh, 1990). White privilege is assets that whites can count on using daily, but of which they are expected to be oblivious. McIntosh identifies twenty-six privileges that whites inherit. Through these privileges the myth of meritocracy is destroyed in America as whites already receive advantages that people of color do not. As McIntosh notes, "If these things are true, this is not such a free country; one's life is not what one makes it; many doors open for certain people through no virtues of their own." Slattery points out "the privileges of the plantation still benefit me" (2006, p. 165). All people can be prejudiced and biased, no matter their race or ethnicity, and whites may feel that they are subjected to "reverse discrimination" (Slattery, 2006, p. 165). However, this is not equal to the systematic racism of domination, which has been perpetuated by privileged white.Systemic racism is perpetuated in the public school system in many ways. Wanda J. Blanchett writes about three crucial examples of systemic racism in public schools. This includes inequities in the funding for schools primarily attended by African-American students versus schools with majority white student populations. Additionally schools with majority black populations employ many "uncredentialed and inadequately prepared teachers, curricula devoid of rigor, and inadequate physical structures" (Darling-Hammond, 2004;National Research Council, 2002 as cited in Blanchett, 2006, p. 25). Curriculum used in schools attended mostly by African-American students doesn't emphasize critical thinking, reasoning, and logic. (Blanchett, 2006, p. 26) White people are an integral part of solving the problem of racism--it is not just a problem for people of culture, it is a problem for our entire society.
The study of racism in the postmodern curriculum goes beyond legal issues such as segregation, integration, and affirmative action. Slattery says "racial issues in the post modern curriculum emphasize investigations of the self and conceptions of the self in relation to the other" (2006, p. 167). In other words, how do students see themselves in relation to other students? Students must be aware of their identities and privileges, and of how their cultural heritage or privilege impacts others, historically and currently. Additionally, Slattery points out that racism is not limited to whites and African Americans. It spans a wide spectrum of other racial and ethnic groups. These issues need to be openly discussed in classrooms in order for students to better understand their classmate's experiences. United States public schools teach students of many different races and cultures, and it is the teachers' responsibility to ensure they are all celebrated.
Teachers need to develop pedagogies to explore racial issues that are perpetuated in the media and the broader society in order to help students better understand their own identities and beliefs, as well as the identities and beliefs of their fellow students. Abraham P. DeLeon (2007) proposes an antiracist pedagogy that relies on newspaper headlines and images to deconstruct the racist undertones that exist in popular discourse as a means to educate students to the latent signs that perpetuate racism. DeLeon describes a story from The New York Times where a black man is shown: "Alexis's upper torso and face were on full display while a white police officer, hand on his shoulder, stood behind him. In the far background, there is a profile of another police officer" (DeLeon, 2007, p. 263). Accompanying the picture were the headlines, "The Ripper" and "Subway knife nut's rampage" (DeLeon, 2007, p. 263). The article describes the rampage of the suspect and provides an idyllic description of two of his victims, strongly suggesting that they are white. DeLeon notes that this is a "typical" representation of black men in the media and it presents a great opportunity for teachers to help their students critically examine racist representations in the media by exposing binaries. By expanding this approach across the curriculum, the dialogue over social issues can be expanded and it "may give room to students who have felt marginalized to discuss ways they have witnessed or experienced oppression" (DeLeon, 2007, p. 266).
Postmodern curriculum should help students find their true identity and dignity. This point is defended by Slattery when he says, "Race, gender and cultural studies in the postmodern curriculum are about shattering myths, especially those that perpetuate repression of the dignity and identity of the self" (2006, p. 170). Myths have to be shattered in today's society to overcome racism and white privilege. Teachers must acknowledge that it is not enough for schools to have a month of black or women's history, but these multicultural studies should be comprehensively incorporated into the curriculum. Hansot and Tyack (1988), suggest that gender is seen as a social construct, a set of cultural meanings attached to the biological division of the sexes. They explain the following: " Institutional gender policies we mean explicit rules that apply in different or similar ways to the two sexes. Institutional gender practices we mean customary arrangements, regularities of expected behavior crystallized into patterns that may or may not reflect official policy" (Hansot & Tyack, 1998, p. 742). To better understand gender and identity in schools, we need to look beyond the notion of institutions and focus on individual students.
Capital Punishment
Capital punishment is a critical issue that incites strong emotion from every individual who debates the decision. It is very difficult to put yourself in the shoes of the people who directly deal with the issue of capital punishment, so the best way to interpret capital punishment from an objective stance is to look at the facts. Currently, according to the Financial facts about the death penalty (2011) taken from the Death Penalty Information Center, it is more economically burdensome to put a prisoner to death than to give them life in prison with no parole. The article gives facts regarding the financial costs, stating that the trial alone costs an average of $620,932 which is eight times higher than non-death penalty murder trials (2011). This information alone cannot stand to prove the death penalty is wrong since murder trials are much more in-depth than non murder trials. A more alarming fact from the article is that states spends millions upon millions of dollars in an attempt to house death-row inmates. California spends 63.3 million a year housing death row inmates (Death Penalty Information Center, 2011). http://www.bing.com/images
Slattery (2006) is one of many in opposition to the death penalty. Though Slattery feels we should be tough on crime, he believes that life in prison is better than capital punishment. He states that criminals convicted of first degree murder should serve life without parole (Slattery). Slattery states similar facts presented earlier from the Death Penalty Information Center regarding the financial strains capital punishment puts on states. It would seem logical to a country driven by a free market economy to choose the more financially sound track. However, states such as Texas, defend the death penalty. According to the Death Penalty Information Center (2011), Texas taxpayers pay 2.3 million a year in death penalty cases which is around three times more costly than incarcerating that same inmate for forty years.
In Slattery's (2006) analysis of the death penalty, he also points out how the system is riddled with unfairness and incompetence. He poses that question about how poor people are supposed to defend themselves when they cannot afford the same high profile lawyers as a rich businessman or celebrity. According to Bordt (2004) there are vast inequities in the application of capital punishment. According to research, race plays a factor in the administration of capital punishment. African Americans are more likely to receive the death penalty than their white counterparts. Slattery (2006) points out an even more troubling fact when he states that two out of three death penalty sentences were overturned because of mistakes that were made. That is sixty-seven percent. This is a very unsettling number and something that deserves much more attention when debating the death penalty.
The inequities in the application of capital punishment stem even further that those of racial unfairness. Throughout American history female executions have been rare in comparison to the number of executions of men (Rapaport, 1990). While there are profound cultural inhibitions against the execution of convicted women, capital punishment supporters argue that "an evil woman deprives herself of the sanctuary of her sex by engaging in violent conduct" (Rapaport, 1990, p. 503). Although the purposes of capital punishment are equally applicable to both sexes, the uncommonness of women on death row forces one to question whether or not women murders receive favorable treatment from the courts (Rapaport, 1990). According to Rapaport (1990), no capital punishment statute classifies by gender, but gender bias seemingly affects the capital punishment administration in this country.
The final, and most troubling, imbalance in death penalty cases that Slattery (2006) identifies is that there are still racial biases that come into play when people seek retribution for the most heinous of crimes. In a striking personal anecdote, Slattery relates the fear and prejudice that shook his community in the wake of two murders. The white community was convinced that David and Loretta were murdered by a black person. Citizens were shocked to find out that it was a pair of white oilfield workers who committed the crime instead. This points out the deeply held racism that still exists in this country's cultural fabric. A recent example occurred on September 21, 2011. Troy Davis was executed for the murder of a White Police Officer although there was substantial evidence pointing to his innocence. Lawrence Brewer was executed for the brutal, race-fueled murder of James Byrd, a Black man who Brewer and two other men dragged from the back of a pickup truck until he was dismembered. Brewer has not only admitted to the crime, but has bragged about it. The Byrd family asked for Brewer to spend life in jail rather than receive the death penalty. The family of the man Davis was convicted of murdering on the other hand was adamant that he receive his punishment and be brought to justice (Lee, 2011). Race is still a criteria for separating someone as "other" and people prefer to blame the "other" when awful crimes are committed. It is easier to convict and kill those that have been labeled as different from the norm through race or social status. It is much more difficult to create the rage and desire for retribution needed to put someone to death when they are identified as part of your own cultural clique.
The main question in all of this discussion is what having a death penalty says about our society. As Slattery states, capital punishment does not "deter crime, reduce violence, save money, or impart justice" (2006, p. 173). Instead, it is little more than retribution meted out by an angry society. Oftentimes, as in the case of David and Loretta's murders, this anger is misplaced and focused on the easiest targets - those that lie outside the protective shroud of sameness. Once we realize and recognize that the death penalty is more about retribution than justice, hopefully we can move forward as a society to more humane forms of punishment.
In the following video Ron McAndrew former Florida warden repudiates the death penalty, and refers to it as the most horryfing thing to do. Even though in the past Mr. McAndrew was in favor of the death penalty, all it took was for him to be present in one execution to see how unhumane it was. In the video he provides a description of his experience, and what would be the best punishment for those men who have committed horrible crimes. We need to prove that we are a moral nation with very high values, however, Slattery is correct when he says that "how a civilized democracy can continue to allow such a barbaric practice, and why the United States is willing to accept a high level of error in capital punishment (Slattery, 2006, pg174).
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G6mWjfRfGnY&feature=player_detailpage
Identity & the Curriculum
Slattery (2006) argues that curriculum studies in the postmodern era are more than just discussions about gender and race issues. These studies are about knowing and recognizing the social and contextual roles that exist in our society. These roles affect a person's image of male and female identity, and they affect their perceptions of self. Madeleine Grumet discusses these ideas in her book, Bitter Milk: Women and Teaching. She believes that teachers, especially women teachers, must understand what teaching means to them. By diving in and investigating the reasons why we teach we may find that this knowledge comes to consciousness through human relationships. Grumet's argument is echoed by other feminists such as Noddings and Belenky in that the postmodern curriculum is moving forward so that racial, gendered, and cultural issues are not just taught in terms of tolerance. Even the word tolerance implies that there is something wrong with the "other" that must be tolerated. The curriculum is a perfect vehicle for driving students "to learn from one another, not only about differences but also about the self" (Slattery, 2006, p. 177). By learning about oneself and teaching students to value themselves, they can hold up under larger societal pressures that may seek to erode their self esteem for not being part of the ruling norm.
Delgado Bernal (2002) argues that through stories and personal narratives, knowledge and understanding can better be obtained by the student of color. Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Latino Critical Theory (LatCrit) are a framework "that challenges the dominant discourse" (Delgado Bernal, 2002, p. 109) giving "credence to critical raced-gendered epistemologies that recognize students of color as holders and creators of knowledge" (Delgado Bernal, 2002, p. 107). CRT and LatCrit emphasize experiential knowledge, which includes personal histories, experiences, cultures, and languages. Measurements of knowledge are no longer Eurocentric. Rather, knowledge is personal and is created through experience and knowing oneself. Through this epistemology, valuable and relevant learning occurs.
Through the consciousness of self that is gained through knowledge, a curriculum that is "about empowerment and liberation" (Slattery, 2006, p. 176) can be developed. Today, most curricula is written to assimilate students into American culture by educating others in terms of tolerance. Slattery argues that curriculum in the postmodern era must be concerned with the politics of power. Curriculum has the power to educate everyone, including those with the power. Within the framework of Slattery's discussion regarding race, sex, and ethnicity, the curriculum can have a major impact on diverse students and have an ability to empower or diminish students' individual truths and their ways of knowing.
Curriculum development programs in the past have basically ignored race and gender becoming homogenized and disconnected. These programs have viewed knowledge as something that was objectively knowable. By teaching knowledge objectively, curriculum programs have been able to avoid any issues that are controversial or contentious. The avoidance of controversy has happened because of a pervasive distrust in the capability of individuals to discuss these types of issues. Slattery contends that the curriculum development in the postmodern era will expose the consequences of teaching from a curriculum that is devoid of any discussion of race. Teacher education programs must embrace critical race theory in order to understand how curriculum continues the "subordination of Students of Color" (Solorzano, 1997, p. 8) while Anthony Whitson's concept of "heteroglossia," the "inclusion of multifaceted and conflicting voices," aims to challenge the curriculum status quo in regards to race (Slattery, 2006, p. 178). Whitson's belief is curriculum should not be the domain of a single discourse but provide students the tools to develop social competence through multiple discourses (Slattery, 2006).
The multiple discourses that Slattery (2006) discusses require the curriculum to deconstruct our current views about gender, sexuality, and race. In order to do this the postmodern curriculum will not allow us to simply teach tolerance, but will require us to deconstruct our master narrative and shift towards an "autobiographical, phenomenological, and postructural analysis" in postmodern scholarship (Slattery, p. 179). This shift in postmodern curriculum recognizes that each individual looks at the word through their own eyes. If you ask eight different people about a topic, you will receive eight different answers. According to Slattery, curriculum in the postmodern era will provide ways in which students can see the influences that create their worldviews and their sense of self. In this way, students learn to appreciate and acknowledge the unique worldviews of the many people in their sphere of influence. Slattery argues that the curriculum in schools should set people free and not be the vehicle used to force individuals to conform. By setting people free from limited views, the curriculum can become vehicles for "exposing the impotence of traditional curriculum development in the face of the tragedies of contemporary society" (Slattery, 2006, p.181). This, of course, is a huge divergence from today's industrialized, assembly-line approach to schooling. In schools today, the only acceptable discourse is that coming from the representatives of the hegemony (the teachers and administrators). Only by encouraging these multiple discourses can a truly multicultural, postmodern society develop.
Bifurcation exists in Western Society in a way that causes us to want to eliminate one side of the contradiction. Slattery discusses an example of this using whiteness. Traditional white racial identities "do not allow whiteness to be understood in ways other than being in opposition to nonwhites" (2006, p. 182). This view of the world causes us to neglect the contributions of other races to our history and leaves us without the full understanding of who we are and where we have come from. The Western philosophies have focused on the dualities found in nature and have based political policy on this idea of eliminating the contradiction. This view of the world is socially constructed, as proofed by the way other Eastern philosophies view the world, an example being yin and yang or parts to a whole. The way we construct the world is our perspective, (if you are not black, then you must be white), but Slattery points out that Eastern philosophies show that there can be multiple perspectives.
The goal of postmodern curriculum development is to discover these perspectives, often discussed through different discourses and narratives, and often coming from our students, and use them to challenge the current metanarrative. Curriculum in the postmodern era seeks to deconstruct our metanarratives about gender, sexual identity, and race. In this deconstruction we will discover and bring to light the unjust power relations and violence that exist in our society. The result of deconstructing our current beliefs is that we will learn to celebrate the uniqueness of each person, culture, and event "within the context of an interdependent cosmological view" (Slattery, 2006, p. 186). Slattery states that "all occasions are important and dynamic parts of the fabric of the whole", which, as teachers, we can take to mean that all students are important and dynamic parts of our society because of their uniqueness, not in spite of it (2006, p. 186).
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